A significant share of education and development research uses data collected by workers called “enumerators.” It is well-documented that “enumerator effects”—or inconsistent practices between the individual people who administer measurement tools— can be a key source of error in survey data collection.

Tailoring teaching to students’ learning levels can improve learning outcomes in low-income countries. Cross-age tutoring, where older students tutor younger students, is a potential alternative for providing personalized instruction to younger students

The 2020 COVID-19 outbreak induced almost universal school closures around the world, placing heightened emphasis on methods for monitoring student learning at a distance. Even prior to these shutdowns, tracking academic outcomes has historically been challenging for out-of-school children, children living in remote areas or who are mobile, and those experiencing humanitarian or natural disasters.